Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacies: 42 Examples & Explanations
Reprinted from: https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com
Also see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fallacies
30 Common Logical Fallacies–A Study Starter | Academic Influence:
https://academicinfluence.com/inflection/study-guides/logical-fallacies.
Logical Fallacies - List of Logical Fallacies with Examples
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/rhetorical-devices/logical-fallacies
https://quillbot.com/blog/frequently-asked-questions/what-is-the-difference-between-a-red-herring-fallacy-and-a-straw-man-fallacy/
15 Logical Fallacies to Know, With Definitions and Examples
You’ve seen them on social media. You’ve heard them in movie dialogue. Heck, you’ve probably even used them yourself.
They’re logical fallacies, those not-quite logically sound statements that might seem solid at first glance, but crumble the moment you give them a second thought.
Logical fallacies are everywhere. Once you know how to recognize them, you’ll notice just how common they are—and how they can undermine the point their writer is attempting to make. Being able to identify logical fallacies in others’ writing as well as in your own will make you a more critical thinker, which in turn will make you a stronger writer and reader.
What is a logical fallacy?
A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning. This is different from a subjective argument or one that can be disproven with facts; for a position to be a logical fallacy, it must be logically flawed or deceptive in some way.
Compare the following two disprovable arguments. Only one of them contains a logical fallacy:
- If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold.
- If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold and infect the rest of the family. Then your sister will have to miss class and she’ll get a bad grade and fail her course.
Can you spot the logical fallacy in the second argument? It’s a slippery slope fallacy, a position that claims that very specific consequences will follow an action. Although both statements can be proven wrong by going outside without a coat and staying perfectly healthy (and by pointing to the proven fact that the only way to catch a cold is to be exposed to a virus), the first one is simply incorrect, not logically flawed.
The history of logical fallacies
Logical fallacies are likely as old as language itself, but they were first recognized and cataloged as such in the Nyāya-Sūtras, the foundational text of the Nyāya school of Hindu philosophy. This text, written somewhere between the 6th century BCE and the 2nd century CE and attributed to Akṣapāda Gautama, identified five distinct ways that an argument could be logically flawed.
Greek philosopher Aristotle also wrote about logical fallacies. He identified thirteen fallacies, divided into verbal and material fallacies, in his work Sophistical Refutations. By Aristotle’s definition, a verbal fallacy is one where the language used is ambiguous or incorrect, and a material fallacy is an argument that involves faulty or flawed reasoning.
Today, our understanding of logical fallacies comes from these sources as well as contributions from later scholars like Richard Whately and Francis Bacon.
Where can I find logical fallacies?
You’ll find logical fallacies just about anywhere you find people debating and using rhetoric, especially in spaces that aren’t academic or professional in nature. In fact, we can almost guarantee that you’ve encountered logical fallacies on social media, especially in the comments under divisive posts. But keep in mind that they can and often do appear in academic writing, especially in the kinds of writing where the author has to defend a position, like argumentative essays and persuasive writing. They can even show up in expository writing.
Logical fallacies aren’t restricted to just one age group, political affiliation, gender, race, religion, subculture, or other shared characteristic—they’re universally human. Our brains aren’t perfect, and even smart people can fall prey to making logically inconsistent statements and arguments. Usually, people make these kinds of statements because they haven’t taken the time to think through them logically, not because they intend to make flawed arguments. But in some cases, the writer or speaker does intend to make a flawed argument, usually in an attempt to sway readers’ opinions or make their opposition look worse.
The best way to avoid making logical fallacies in your own writing is to familiarize yourself with them and learn how to recognize them. That way, they’ll stick out to you when you’re reading your first draft, and you’ll see exactly where your writing needs thoughtful revision.
What are 15 common types of logical fallacies?
As you’ll see below, there are a lot of ways an argument can be flawed. Take a look at fifteen of the most commonly used logical fallacies.
1 Ad hominem
An ad hominem fallacy is one that attempts to invalidate an opponent’s position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic.
Example: Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn’t grow up in this town.
2 Red herring
A red herring is an attempt to shift focus from the debate at hand by introducing an irrelevant point.
Example: Losing a tooth can be scary, but have you heard about the Tooth Fairy?
3 Straw man
A straw man argument is one that argues against a hyperbolic, inaccurate version of the opposition rather than their actual argument.
Example: Erin thinks we need to stop using all plastics, right now, to save the planet from climate change.
4 Equivocation
An equivocation is a statement crafted to mislead or confuse readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or interpretations of a word or simply through unclear phrasing.
Example: While I have a clear plan for the campus budget that accounts for every dollar spent, my opponent simply wants to throw money at special interest projects.
5 Slippery slope
With a slippery slope fallacy, the arguer claims a specific series of events will follow one starting point, typically with no supporting evidence for this chain of events.
Example: If we make an exception for Bijal’s service dog, then other people will want to bring their dogs. Then everybody will bring their dog, and before you know it, our restaurant will be overrun with dogs, their slobber, their hair, and all the noise they make, and nobody will want to eat here anymore.
6 Hasty generalization
A hasty generalization is a statement made after considering just one or a few examples rather than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim. It’s important to keep in mind that what constitutes sufficient research depends on the issue at hand and the statement being made about it.
Example: I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from Georgio’s, so I must be allergic to something in pizza.
7 Appeal to authority
In an appeal to authority, the arguer claims an authority figure’s expertise to support a claim despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.
Example: If you want to be healthy, you need to stop drinking coffee. I read it on a fitness blog.
8 False dilemma
A false dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy, claims there are only two options in a given situation. Often, these two options are extreme opposites of each other, failing to acknowledge that other, more reasonable, options exist.
Example: If you don’t support my decision, you were never really my friend.
9 Bandwagon fallacy
With the bandwagon fallacy, the arguer claims that a certain action is the right thing to do because it’s popular.
Example: Of course it’s fine to wait until the last minute to write your paper. Everybody does it!
10 Appeal to ignorance
An appeal to ignorance is a claim that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false. It can also be a claim that something must be false because it hasn’t been proven true. This is also known as the burden of proof fallacy.
Example: There must be fairies living in our attic because nobody’s ever proven that there aren’t fairies living in our attic.
11 Circular argument
A circular argument is one that uses the same statement as both the premise and the conclusion. No new information or justification is introduced.
Example: Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I think peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow.
12 Sunk cost fallacy
With the sunk cost fallacy, the arguer justifies their decision to continue a specific course of action by the amount of time or money they’ve already spent on it.
Example: I’m not enjoying this book, but I bought it, so I have to finish reading it.
13 Appeal to pity
An appeal to pity attempts to sway a reader’s or listener’s opinion by provoking them emotionally.
Example: I know I should have been on time for the interview, but I woke up late and felt really bad about it, then the stress of being late made it hard to concentrate on driving here.
14 Causal fallacy
A causal fallacy is one that implies a relationship between two things where one can’t actually be proven.
Example: When ice cream sales are up, so are shark attacks. Therefore, buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten by a shark.
15 Appeal to hypocrisy
An appeal to hypocrisy, also known as a tu quoque fallacy, is a rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism rather than with a response to the claim itself.
Example: “You don’t have enough experience to be the new leader.” “Neither do you!”
Although this list covers the most commonly seen logical fallacies, it’s not exhaustive. Other logical fallacies include the no true Scotsman fallacy (“New Yorkers fold their pizza, so you must not really be from New York if you eat yours with utensils.”) and the Texas sharpshooter fallacy (cherry-picking data to support a claim rather than drawing a logical conclusion from a broad body of evidence).
Logical fallacy examples
Take a look at these examples and see if you can spot the logical fallacy:
- My dad scolded me for getting a speeding ticket, so I asked him about all the tickets he racked up when he was my age.
- Aliens don’t exist. If they did, we would have seen one by now.
- I want to change my major to English, but I’m so close to finishing my chemistry degree.
These are just a few examples of common logical fallacies (appeal to hypocrisy, appeal to ignorance, and sunk cost, respectively) we encounter in everyday speech. Next time you’re listening to conversations or reading online discussions, think carefully about the arguments being made and determine if they fit into one of the fallacy categories listed above.
How to avoid using logical fallacies
The most effective way to avoid using logical fallacies in your work is to carefully think through every argument you make, tracing your mental steps to ensure that each can be supported with facts and doesn’t contradict other statements you’ve made in your work. Do this during the brainstorming stage so you can separate strong ideas from weak ones and choose which to include in your paper. Continue validating (and when necessary, invalidating) your ideas as you work through the outlining stage by noting the evidence you have to support your claims under each header.
Don’t just back up your claims, challenge them! Pretend you’re arguing an opposing position and you want to expose the flaws in your original argument.
If you come across logical fallacies in your writing, take time to reconstruct your positions so they’re logically sound. This could mean changing how you approach and explain your argument or adjusting the argument itself. Remember, using a logical fallacy doesn’t necessarily mean the idea being argued is incorrect—it could be an objective fact or a defendable opinion, but simply being presented in an illogical way.
Logical fallacy FAQs
What is a logical fallacy?
A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning.
Why do people use logical fallacies?
People use logical fallacies for different reasons. In some cases, speakers and writers intentionally use logical fallacies in an effort to make their opposition look worse, to simplify an issue, or make their own position look superior. In other cases, people use them unintentionally, either because they haven’t thought their statements through or don’t understand why their arguments are logically flawed.
https://www.wikihow.com/Savage-Comebacks-in-an-Argument
1. Ad hominem
You attacked your opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.
Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or more subtly casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone's case without actually having to engage with it.
Example: After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn't married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.
2. Tu quoque
You avoided having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - you answered criticism with criticism.
Pronounced too-kwo-kweh. Literally translating as 'you too' this fallacy is also known as the appeal to hypocrisy. It is commonly employed as an effective red herring because it takes the heat off someone having to defend their argument, and instead shifts the focus back on to the person making the criticism.
Example: Nicole identified that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conversation.
3. Personal incredulity
Because you found something difficult to understand, or are unaware of how it works, you made out like it's probably not true.
Complex subjects like biological evolution through natural selection require some amount of understanding before one is able to make an informed judgement about the subject at hand; this fallacy is usually used in place of that understanding.
Example: Kirk drew a picture of a fish and a human and with effusive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we were stupid enough to believe that a fish somehow turned into a human through just, like, random things happening over time.
4. Special pleading
You moved the goalposts or made up an exception when your claim was shown to be false.
Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the benefits of being able to change one's mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs. One of the most common ways that people do this is to post-rationalize a reason why what they thought to be true must remain to be true. It's usually very easy to find a reason to believe something that suits us, and it requires integrity and genuine honesty with oneself to examine one's own beliefs and motivations without falling into the trap of justifying our existing ways of seeing ourselves and the world around us.
Example: Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his 'abilities' were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work
5. Loaded question
You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't be answered without appearing guilty.
Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.
Example: Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was still having problems with her drug habit.
6. Burden of proof
You said that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone else to disprove.
The burden of proof lies with someone who is making a claim, and is not upon anyone else to disprove. The inability, or disinclination, to disprove a claim does not render that claim valid, nor give it any credence whatsoever. However it is important to note that we can never be certain of anything, and so we must assign value to any claim based on the available evidence, and to dismiss something on the basis that it hasn't been proven beyond all doubt is also fallacious reasoning.
Example: Bertrand declares that a teapot is, at this very moment, in orbit around the Sun between the Earth and Mars, and that because no one can prove him wrong, his claim is therefore a valid one.
7. Ambiguity
You used a double meaning or ambiguity of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.
Politicians are often guilty of using ambiguity to mislead and will later point to how they were technically not outright lying if they come under scrutiny. The reason that it qualifies as a fallacy is that it is intrinsically misleading.
Example: When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn't paid his parking fines, he said that he shouldn't have to pay them because the sign said 'Fine for parking here' and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to park there.
8. The gambler's fallacy
You said that 'runs' occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.
This commonly believed fallacy can be said to have helped create an entire city in the desert of Nevada USA. Though the overall odds of a 'big run' happening may be low, each spin of the wheel is itself entirely independent from the last. So whilst there may be a very small chance that heads will come up 20 times in a row if you flip a coin, the chances of heads coming up on each individual flip remain 50/50, and aren't influenced by what happened before.
Example: Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Suffering an economic form of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.
9. Bandwagon
You appealed to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.
The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity.
If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.
Example: Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they're only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had had a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.
10. Appeal to authority
You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.
It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However, it is entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.
Example: Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).
11. Composition/division
You assumed that one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it; or that the whole must apply to its parts.
Often when something is true for the part it does also apply to the whole, or vice versa, but the crucial difference is whether there exists good evidence to show that this is the case. Because we observe consistencies in things, our thinking can become biased so that we presume consistency to exist where it does not.
Example: Daniel was a precocious child and had a liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too. Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.
12. No true Scotsman
You made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.
In this form of faulty reasoning one's belief is rendered unfalsifiable because no matter how compelling the evidence is, one simply shifts the goalposts so that it wouldn't apply to a supposedly 'true' example. This kind of post-rationalization is a way of avoiding valid criticisms of one's argument.
Example: Angus declares that Scotsmen do not put sugar on their porridge, to which Lachlan points out that he is a Scotsman and puts sugar on his porridge. Furious, like a true Scot, Angus yells that no true Scotsman sugars his porridge.
13. Genetic
You judged something as either good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it came.
This fallacy avoids the argument by shifting focus onto something's or someone's origins. It's similar to an ad hominem fallacy in that it leverages existing negative perceptions to make someone's argument look bad, without actually presenting a case for why the argument itself lacks merit.
Example: Accused on the 6 o'clock news of corruption and taking bribes, the senator said that we should all be very wary of the things we hear in the media, because we all know how very unreliable the media can be.
14. Black-or-white
You presented two alternative states as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.
Also known as the false dilemma, this insidious tactic has the appearance of forming a logical argument, but under closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there are more possibilities than the either/or choice that is presented. Binary, black-or-white thinking doesn't allow for the many different variables, conditions, and contexts in which there would exist more than just the two possibilities put forth. It frames the argument misleadingly and obscures rational, honest debate.
Example: Whilst rallying support for his plan to fundamentally undermine citizens' rights, the Supreme Leader told the people they were either on his side, or they were on the side of the enemy.
15. Begging the question
You presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.
This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it's not very good.
Example: The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.
16. Appeal to nature
You argued that because something is 'natural' it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good or ideal.
Many 'natural' things are also considered 'good', and this can bias our thinking; but naturalness itself doesn't make something good or bad. For instance murder could be seen as very natural, but that doesn't mean it's good or justifiable.
Example: The medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon offering various natural remedies, such as very special plain water. He said that it was only natural that people should be wary of 'artificial' medicines such as antibiotics.
17. Anecdotal
You used a personal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling evidence.
It's often much easier for people to believe someone's testimony as opposed to understanding complex data and variation across a continuum. Quantitative scientific measures are almost always more accurate than personal perceptions and experiences, but our inclination is to believe that which is tangible to us, and/or the word of someone we trust over a more 'abstract' statistical reality.
Example: Jason said that that was all cool and everything, but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a day and lived until 97 - so don't believe everything you read about meta analyses of methodologically sound studies showing proven causal relationships.
18. The Texas sharpshooter
You cherry-picked a data cluster to suit your argument, or found a pattern to fit a presumption.
This 'false cause' fallacy is coined after a marksman shooting randomly at barns and then painting bullseye targets around the spot where the most bullet holes appear, making it appear as if he's a really good shot. Clusters naturally appear by chance, but don't necessarily indicate that there is a causal relationship.
Example: The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy.
19. Middle ground
You claimed that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.
Much of the time the truth does indeed lie between two extreme points, but this can bias our thinking: sometimes a thing is simply untrue and a compromise of it is also untrue. Half way between truth and a lie, is still a lie.
Example: Holly said that vaccinations caused autism in children, but her scientifically well-read friend Caleb said that this claim had been debunked and proven false. Their friend Alice offered a compromise that vaccinations must cause some autism, just not all autism.
20. Strawman
You misrepresented someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate.
Example: After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.
21. False cause
You presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.
Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause.
Example: Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates have been decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.
22. Appeal to emotion
You attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It's important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational reason exists for one's position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very common and effective argument tactic, but they're ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make one's opponents justifiably emotional.
Example: Luke didn't want to eat his sheep's brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren't fortunate enough to have any food at all.
23. The fallacy fallacy
You presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.
It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as it is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.
Example: Recognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.
24. Slippery slope
You said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.
The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because no proof is presented to show that such extreme hypotheticals will in fact occur, this fallacy has the form of an appeal to emotion fallacy by leveraging fear. In effect the argument at hand is unfairly tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.
Example: Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we'll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.
https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/fallacies_list.html
https://www.psychologytools.com/articles/unhelpful-thinking-styles-cognitive-distortions-in-cbt
https://www.logicallyfallacious.com/logicalfallacies/Non-Sequitur
1. Ad hominem
You attacked your opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.
2. Tu quoque
You avoided having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - you answered criticism with criticism.
3. Personal incredulity
Because you found something difficult to understand, or are unaware of how it works, you made out like it's probably not true.
4. Special pleading
You moved the goalposts or made up an exception when your claim was shown to be false.
5. Loaded question
You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn't be answered without appearing guilty.
6. Burden of proof
You said that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone else to disprove.
7. Ambiguity
You used a double meaning or ambiguity of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.
8. The gambler's fallacy
You said that 'runs' occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.
9. Bandwagon
You appealed to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.
10. Appeal to authority
You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.
11. Composition/division
You assumed that one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it; or that the whole must apply to its parts.
12. No true Scotsman
You made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.
13. Genetic
You judged something as either good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it came.
14. Black-or-white
You presented two alternative states as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.
15. Begging the question
You presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.
16. Appeal to nature
You argued that because something is 'natural' it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good or ideal.
17. Anecdotal
You used a personal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling evidence.
18. The texas sharpshooter
You cherry-picked a data cluster to suit your argument, or found a pattern to fit a presumption.
19. Middle ground
You claimed that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.
20. Strawman
You misrepresented someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
21. False cause
You presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.
22. Appeal to emotion
You attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
23. The fallacy fallacy
You presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.
24. Slippery slope
You said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.
Comments
Post a Comment